Old Book Acad

what is the zoology
Zoology or animal biology is the branch of biology.that is the related to kingdom ,including structure embryology evolution habitat and distribution of all animal and living organism. Zoo i.e animal a and logos i.e knowledge or study.
It deal with both animal and extinct organism.Zoology is derived from the Greek word Zoon ( animal)+ logos(study).Zoologies studies everything including structure habitat evolution embryology etc.

Mitochondria
the mitochondria is a double membrane bound organelle found in most eukaryote cells.the word mitochondria comes to from the Greek mito that is 'thread' and chondria that is granule or gram like.
mitochondria are commonly between 0.75 and 3µm in diameter but very considerable in size and structure.unless specifically stained, thy are not visible.mitochondria have been described as "the powerhouse of the cell because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine tri phosphatase ATP used as a source of chemical energy.

History
the frist observations of intracellular structure that probably represented mitochondria were published in 1840 Richard altmann.in 1894 established than as cell organelles and called then 'bioblasts' the tram 'mitochondria' was coined by carl benda in 1898.
Friedrisch meves, mode the first recorded observation of mitochondria in plant in cell of the white waterlily Nymphaea alba.

Origin

A mitochondria contains DNA,which is organized as several copies of a single,circular chromosome. this mitochondrial chromosome contain genes for redox protein ,such as those of the respiratory chain. the CoRR hypothesis propses that location is required for redox regulation. the mitochondria genome codes for same RANs of messenger RANs into protein.the circular structure is also found in prokaryotes.

Structure

mitochondria contains outer and inner membranes composed phospholipid and protein. the two membranes have different properties. because of this double-membrane organization,there are five distinct part to a mitochondria.

1-the outer mitochondria remembrance

2-the intermembrance . space( the space between the

outer and inner membrancs)
3-the inner mitochondrial membrane
4-the cristae space(formed by infloding of the inner membrane)
5-the matrix(space within the inner membrane)

Outer membrance.
the outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle,is 60 to 75 angstroms thick.it has a protein to phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane.
Inter membrane space
the intermembranec space is between the outer membranes and inner membranes .it is also know as perimitochondrial space.
Inner membrance
the inner mitochondrial membranes contains proteins with five type of fountions.
1-thise that perform the redox reactions of oxidative phosphorylation.
2-ATP syntheses which generate ATP in the matrix.
3-specific transfer proteins that regulation mettabolite passage into and out of the matrix.
4-protein import machinery.
5-mitochondrial fusion and fission protein. its contain more than 151 different polypeptides and has very hight protein to phospholipid ratio(more than 3:1 by weigh,which is about protein far 15 phospholipid.

Cristae
the inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into memerous cristae,which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membranes.enhancing its ability of produce ATP

Matrix
the matrix is the space enclosed by the inner membrane.it contains about 2/3 of the total protein in a mitochondria.the matrix is important in the production of ATP with the aid of the ATP.
synthase contained in yhe inner membrane.the matx concentraed mixture of hunddreds of enzymes. special miotchondrial ribosome. tRNA and sevral copies of the mitochondrial DNA genome of the enzyme, the majar fuctions include oxidation of pyruvate and fatty acid and citric acid cycle.

Make energy
Mitochondrial are aften referred to as power house of the cells. the generate the energy that our cells need to do their job. for ex-brain cells need a lot of energy to be able to communicate with each  other and also to communicate with parts of the body that many be for away.
mitochondria generate chemical energy, similar to the type of energy you get from the battery .the energy made by the mitochondria is in the form of a chemical called adenosine tri phosphoate or ATP for short from. ATP is the energy currency that every cell in our body can use and it keepsus alive. the machinery that mitochondria use to mkr ATP is called the electron transport   chain.

GOLGI BODY/ GOLGI COMPLEX/GOLGI APPARATUS
In 1890, Camillo Golgi first discovered this complex in the cytoplasm by silver nitrate staining method.
In 1941,Raman cajal,named Golgi apparatus and studies its function.
In 1910,Perroncito studies in plant and called dicytosomes
Golgi complax occurs in all living cells except RBCs, prokaryotic cells,and mature sperm mature sieve tubes bryophytes, pteridophytes  ,etc
Both morphologically and functionally it is related to the endoplasmic reticulum. Golgi complex consist of group of membrane bound spaces which are the following type;-
1-CISTERNAE

Cisternae form the central plate like group of tubular or flattened compartment of about 20 Angstrom wide and enclosed by unit membrane.these are parallel bundles one above the the other are separated by intercisternal spaec of about 200-300 angstrom there membrane varies form 3-12.these are slightly curved.the convex surface is called firming face or cis face and toward nuclear envelop or ER while concave surface is called maturing face or trans face and toward the plasma membrane.

2-Tubules

Cisternae forms sa peripheral complex network called tubules.

3-Vesicles

These are small drop like structure about 400-800 Angstrom in diameter. these are associated with convex forming face of golgi complex and that is next to smooth ER.these devlop from the cisternae of ER and fuse to from golgi cisternae.

4-secretory vesicles

these are present on the side of from the trans face of golgi cisternae.these are pinched off product of golgi and are finally converted into zymogen granules or lyosomes.

5-Coated vesicles

in the some cell types.the secretory vesicles are coated with a layer of protein. these are called coated vesicles.these are associated with the secertion of highly specialization cell products.

Functions

1-Secretion-

Golgi complex is mainly associated with the secretory activity of the cell.thought the channels of golgi there is a continuous traffic of are substances from cell to the outside.these substances are synthesized elsewhere in the cell and concentrated and modified by the golgi complex. finally these are secreted outside.these include enzymes,hormones, endocrine secretion etc.

2-Conecntration and storage of secretory products

Golgi complex is associated with conecntration storage, condensation and parking of material. the glycoproteins and lipoprotein are concentrated and packed in secretory vesicles which bud of from golgi cisternae.

3-Formation of lysosomes

primary lysosomes are formed from golgi cisternae in the same way as the secretory vesicles.

4-Synthesis of glycoproteins

Golgi complex facilities the linking of carbohydrate and protein in the formation of glycoprotein.

5-synthesis of carbohydrate

Golgi apparatus is considered to the main agency of building of large molecules of carbohydrate from simple sugars.

6-Formation of cell plate

Golgi complex produces vesicles during anaphase of mitosis.these vesicles fuse to from the cell plate.

7-Formation of cell wall

Substances necessary for the formation of cell wall are synthesized and secreted by golgi complex

8-formation of acrosome

Acrosome of sperm develops from golgi complex.

NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen is found in the atmosphere in the highest concentration about 79% in the from of nitrogen. It is essential component of protein and chlorophyll found in organisms. Nitrogen not directly taken by animal and plants from the atmosphere. nitrogen gas is converted into combined from by a biological mean ( for ex- though lighting and rain fall or artificially in the fertilizer industries at a very high temperature and pressure) and by same prokaryotic microorganisms (for ex- bacteria and cyno bacteria).The nitrogen is made available to plant as protein though free-living and symbiotic microbes the animal ingest plant protein.Thus nitrogen becomes a building block of a.a (amino acid)protein and cell well of all organisms.Upon death their organisms undergo decomposition and make building block in free elemental forms.The nitrogen fixing micro organisms are called diazotophs and the phenomenon of this activity is know as diazotophy.

The important stages of Nitrogen cycle are-

1-Ammonification

2-Nitrification

3-Denitrification

1-Ammonification:-

During the course of organic complex from of organic nitrogen is blocked by micro organisms into the more stable inorganic form.This process is called nitrogen Ammonification. As a result, ammonia is formed and organic nitrogen disappears.

The process is as follows-

Complex organic matter + H2O________2NH3 +CO2

NH2_C=O_NH2 +H2O__________ 2NH3 +CO2

Microbiology:-

A variety of microorganisms producers ammonia from organic ntirogen compounds. These include

1-Bacteria-Ex Pseudomonas ,Bacillus,Clostridium, Micrococcus, etc

2-Fungi Ex- Alternaria, Aspergillus,Mucor, Penicillium, Rizopus, etc

2-NITRIFICATION:-

The process of oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrite ions and subsequently to nitrite ions is know as nitrification.Ammonium ion, the most reduced firm of inorganic nitrogen acts as the starting point for nitrification. Nitrification was discovered to be a biological process by schloesing and Muntz in 1877. Winogradsky isolated the bacteria responsible for biological nitrification in 1890.

2NH3 + 3O2 ___________________ 2NO2 + 2H ions+ 2H2O

in presence of nitrification bacteria and release of two hydrogen ions

2NO2 ions + O2 _______________ 2NO3

nitrifying bacteria presence on this reaction.

Microbiology:-

This process is usually associated with energy yielding reaction in metabolism of autrophic bacteria.Such bacteria that carry by two separate groups of bacteria.-

1- ammonia oxidizing bacteria or nitrosifying bacteria

2- nitrite oxidizing bacteria or nitrifying bacteria.

1-Ammonia Oxidizing bacteria-

The bacteria are -Nitrosomonas , Nitrosococus,Nitrosolobus,Nitrosospirea, Nitrosovibria

2-Nitrite Oxidizing Bacteria:-

The bacteria are Nitro bacter Nitrospira, Nitrococus.etc

Mostly nitrification is carried by autotrophic bacteria but there are some hetrotrophic bacteria and fungi which also taken part in the nitrification.

Ex- Nitrosomonas, aspergillus flavus.

3-DENITRIFICATION:-

When nitrate and is added to soil, NO2 ions, N2O(nitrous oxide) and N2 are formed after reduction of nitrite. Microbial reduction of nitrate with the liberation of molecular nitrogen and nitrous oxide is called denitrification.

2HNO3 ___________2HNO2______ 2NO2_______ N2O______ N2

presence of hydrogen and water ions.

Microbiology

Dinitrification ic carried out only by Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Paracocus, Thiobacillus, Denitrification Chromobacterium, corybne bacterium, hyphomicrobium, etc

GIANT /LARGE CHROMOSOME

Polytene Chromosome;- polytene chromosome was first time seen by an Italian cytologist Balbiani in 1881.But there not recognized as chromosome. In 1933 Painter,Bover and Heitz described their structure. The polytene chromosome occurs in the nuclei of salivary glands,epithelial living of guts of Drosophila and some fat bodies of the larval stages of certain insects such as chromosome(class- Diptera),these are described as polytene chromosomes. In Drosophila malenogester (fruit fly) the size of polytene chromosome is about 1000 time large than the of the somatic chromosomes. The ploytene chromosomes are regarded as multi stranded structure being composed of a number of fibers or chromosomes.The polytene chromosome also represent a distinct pattern of transverse binding. Its consist of colored bands alternating with light colored areas the inter bands.The dark bends are feulgen positive i.e they are formed of hetrochromatin. The inter bend are feulgen negative and are formed of coiled 30 nm chromatin fiber. The bend are genetically active sites. The are nearly 5000 bends in polytene chromosomes of Drosophila larva. Polytene chromosomes in the addition to bends and inter bends also have special enlargement and extension of bends into lateral loops or puffs. These large puffs are called Balbiani rings,These comes out into a series of loops these loops increase thickness or diameter of the chromosome.

LAMP BRUSH CHROMOSOME;-

The Lamp Brush Chromosomes are giant size chromosome are found in oocytic nuclei of those vertebrates which have large yolk containing egg.These can be seen by naked eyes. Lamp Brush Chromosome resembling like brush used for cleaning lamps. Lamp Brush chromosome were first time seen by Flemming in 1882. and In 1892, Ruckert named them Lamp Brush because of their shape. Lamp brush chromosome are found in oocytes of insects, Amphibians ,reptile,birds and sharks. These have also been found in the plants and invertebrates. These may be as long as 1000 micro meter or more and about 20 micro meter in width.In salamander (amphibian) oocyte these may attain a length of about 5900 micro meter. A lamp brush chromosome in diplotene stags consist of two homologous chromosomes which are in contact only at certain points know as chiasmate. Each chromosome of the pair id formed of two sister chromatids which present parallel and form the chromosomal axis or the main axis. The axis is about 4000 micrometer long while in ordinary chromosome its is 10 micrometer.

It is differentiated into the following-

1- Highly condensed darkly stained chromosomes alternating with light colored inter bends.

2-Large de condensed chromatin loop or lateral loops.

3-Less de condensed chromatin that joins that adjacent chromomeres.

4-The chromosome axis, the chromosomes and the loops axis all are formed of DNA.

1- THE CHROMOMERES;-

These are are found in pairs,one chromomeres on each chromatial. These are about 0.25 to 2.0 micrometer in diameter and are spaced about 2micrometer from center to center along chromatid axis these represent hetero chromatic regions which axial filament remains tightly coded.these are transcriptionally inactive.

2-LATERAL LOOPS;-

These arise from the chromosomes and are about 10,000in the number in each chromosome in amphibian oocyte .Each loops extends on the side of the chromatid axis about 5-50 micrometer long and about 30-50 Angstrom in the diameter. Since there are two chromosome and two chromatids, there are four copies of each lateral loops at each given position. each loops consist of an axial fiber formed of DNA. It is surrounding with matrix composed of m-RNA and proteins.

this topic for M.sc(zoology) helpful

CORAL REEFS

Corals are animal belonge to the phylum coelentreta.these have foumd in the sea water.these salitary or colonical ploypoids from and live in the skelaton to calcium carbonate secreted by themselves.some of them grow into huge mounds while other are largeand branched colonies.however,most of the corals belong to the class to yje amthozoa and few other to the class hydrozoa. the hydrozoa corals are colonical from and secrete massive exoskeleton belong to the milleporia, egmillepora. these are corals founds with the other corals formin g huge mounds.

Sevral stony corals produce reefs of calcareous rocks and ulytimatly dry land. reef corals in living condition from one of the most complex and fascinating marine comnmunities and as such as are of great interest from ecological and biological stand points.

Reef building corals are strictly tropical and require warm, shallow water. therefore coral reefs are limiteds only to continential and island shore in tropical and sub tropical zones. these corals can bear tempreature below 18 degree cellcius. above 22 they flourish. Corals reefs thrive well in water deeper than live as deep as 80 meters and more.Coral reefs inhabit water including Florida, Bermuda The Baharmas and the west Indies and Indo pacific region.

COMPONENTS OF CORAL REEFS

In addition to stony corals,other components in the formation of the corals reef are millipora, tubiora, heliopora,alcynaria,gorgonians, forminifera, coralline alge and branching alge etc

DEFINITION

Vaughan 1917 has defined a coral reef "A coral reef is ridge or mound of limestone, the upper surface which is near the sea and which is formed of calcium carbonate by the action of organism chiefty corals."

TYPE OF CORAL REEFS

Hyman 1940 describe that there are three type of coral reefs

1-Fringing reef

2-Barrier reef

3-Atoll

FRINGING REEF

It is a ridge of corals also referred to as shore reefs formed from the sea bottom they occurs very near the shore, a few feet to 0.4 km away having sometimes channels and pools, due to the reptured in the reef. Channel and pools are inhabited bydiffrent type of colured animals and coral. they are also found in mud, dead coral and other masses of rocky fregments.

BARRIER REEFS

It is a just like a fringing reef but the main difference is that in this a wide channel is presnt in which large ships can sail.The example in great barrier reef of Australia. It is a largest barrier reef and in 2160km in lenght and is about 40 to 144 km,away from the shore. Navigble channel called lagoon seperated these reefs from the shore. The lagoon may be 20 to 40 fathoms deep becomes navigable. Sometime, a barrier reef surrounded as island captain cook sailed in the coral reef of Australia and for 960 km. after which his ship was wrecked.

ATOLL

It is the coral island and consists of a belt of coral reef having central shallow lake communicating with the sea. It is horse-shoe shaped or circular reef enclosed the lagoon. These lagoon 64 to 80 km across. sevearl of such atoll occur in south pacific. The atoll of biknii is very famous and has a land of 459.2 squar km. And a shollow lake of 448 km. another atoll , which is very famous due to prominence in world war second is atoll of tarawa.

REEF FORMATION

Several theories have been put forword about the problum of reef formation. As the coral,which are builder do not grow 45 meter at the outside and its also known that coral in the past ages belonged to sea-shore, the difficulty arose how those coral reefs attained vertical growth.theories propounded for the explaination of the reef formation are as follows

1-Darwin-Dana subsidence theory

2-Semper-murray solution theory

3-Daly glacial-contral theory

1-DARWIN-DANA SUBSIDENCE THEORY

Charles Darwin's theory explains the formation of reef. According to him the reefs began as fring around slowly sinking shore. which continue to grow upwords and the land sinks. thus the fringing reefs turn into a barrier reef when coast subsides. the lagoon sepreating it from the reef become wider and wider island surrounded by barrier reefs finally sink beneath the lagoon. thus,the encircling reef is left on which islands of wave tossed. atoll are formed as accumulation of loose fragment of rocks.

2-DALY GLACIAL-CONTRAL THEORY

Submerged bank theory and daly glacial-contral theory are wiedly favoured by zoologiests about reef formation.Darwin's theory od subsidence has also gained great support,In 1904 a socity od london, which started the work of boring on funa futi Atoll in the south pacific , north of fiji and the result supported the subsidence theory. Cary 1931 made three borning from the shore into a reefs in sanoa and the result confirmed Daly Glacial-contral theory\.Two boring were done in great barrier rref committee, each in 1928 and in 1938. there is evidence that coral reef are growing today on sumerged land and the foundation of reef are now at much greater depth than they were whn coral first began to grow.

its topic helpful in m.sc in zoology